An Financial Method to Homer’s Odyssey: Half I

Modeling Homer’s World

On this collection, I’ll use an financial method to raised perceive the implicit politics and economics in The Odyssey. As a “naïve” reader with no coaching in historical historical past, I discover the comparative therapy of political regimes as probably the most placing options of the narrative, specifically that Odysseus visits a substantial variety of distinct polities, and experiences every otherwise. How does every regime function, and the way does it differ from the opposite regimes offered within the guide? Economics forces us to boil down these descriptions and comparisons to a comparatively small variety of variables. Attempting to mannequin the polities in Homer’s Odyssey forces us to resolve that are their important, versus unintended options, and what they may have in frequent, or that are a very powerful factors of distinction.

You don’t have to carry any particular loyalty to the financial method to suppose this technique is perhaps worthwhile. There may be an adage that it’s higher to commerce in a liquid market than an illiquid market. Economics is, in mental phrases, a liquid market. There are a large number of economists, and many individuals are acquainted with the fundamental modes of financial thought. So, bringing a brand new method to Homer is placing an thought out into a comparatively lively dialogue group, analogous to buying and selling in a liquid market. This appears value attempting for Homer, since The Odyssey has obtained virtually zero consideration from economists so far.

The financial method to Homer’s Odyssey additionally might assist us perceive each the energy and limitations of economics as a way. How does economics fare when confronted with extraordinarily advanced narratives, taken from a really totally different time and from a tradition considerably faraway from the setting by which economics itself originated? To use a really “liquid” easy technique—economics—to a really “liquid” well-known and sophisticated textual content—Homer’s Odyssey—looks as if one method to take a look at economics itself. Nonetheless, the rational alternative method to Homer nonetheless appears comparatively underexplored, given the celebrity and affect of the textual content itself.

Under, I outline what I imply by an financial method to Homer. Within the subsequent essays, I’ll think about the politics of the totally different polities in The Odyssey, making use of a comparative perspective.

What does an financial method to Homer include?

The financial method to human conduct is given many interpretations, mostly the view that individuals search wealth or that persons are economically egocentric. Or an financial method could also be regarded as unearthing the underlying financial preconditions or circumstances of Homer’s world, or of the worlds he wrote about, or of the true polities which can have corresponded to his narrative therapies.

These are attention-grabbing approaches, however I intend one thing extra basic and extra methodological, specifically I outline an financial method by way of modeling. If we take a state of affairs, or for that matter a textual content, and divide up its data into “claims about preferences” and “claims about costs and constraints,” then, for my part, we’re beginning to construct an financial mannequin. Fundamental microeconomic fashions classify conditions into extra primitive or basic claims about preferences and constraints, after which they take these categorizations and see if the at the moment accessible toolbox of fashions—additionally outlined by way of each preferences and constraints—would possibly apply to them.

To be clear, this methodological method entails a minimal of ontological dedication. It doesn’t require that persons are “really rational” in any instrumental sense, nor does it require that people totally perceive the constraints they face. As a substitute, the financial technique, as stipulated right here, is greatest regarded as a method of producing new hypotheses and testing previous ones.

To check Homer’s Odyssey to easy neoclassical financial fashions, allow us to think about a few of the claims about preferences and constraints usually made by mainstream economics:

• 1. People maximize their utility in a rational method.

• 2. People care about items different than simply wealth, however in lots of market settings, wealth or revenue maximization is a enough stand-in for utility maximization.

• 3. People are forward-looking and they’ll commerce transparently with others if {the marketplace} is sufficiently liquid.

On the planet(s) of Homer’s Odyssey, in distinction, the assumptions about human conduct are totally different. Usually phrases I consider the core assumptions as trying extra like the next:

• 1. People pursue quests slightly than consumption as historically outlined.

• 2. People are frequently deceiving others and certainly typically themselves. Beneficial properties from financial commerce are scant, however the threat of dying or imprisonment is excessive.

• 3. People hunt down states of intoxication.

Underneath the financial method I’m proposing, you possibly can consider Homer’s Odyssey as what occurs whenever you inject assumptions alongside the above traces (with some qualifiers) into a wide range of settings. We’ll find yourself with a brand new tackle what conventional economics is lacking, and extra virtually, how we’d perceive actual world polities and the political choices earlier than us.

The mode of The Odyssey is placing in yet one more approach: the world is generally “deglobalized.” That’s, the totally different polities have just about no contact with one another, or not less than no such contact is proven, not less than other than the travels of Odysseus and his males. It’s actually a world of separate islands and societies. The gods go in all places, as they want; Odysseus and his males are “international” vacationers, however the societies themselves are held aside. A serious occasion of cross-societal contact, in fact, is offered in The Iliad, specifically the wrestle between Sparta and Troy, and that could be a brutal, damaging battle. The suitors visiting Penelope and residing in the home of Odysseus are one other instance of cross-cultural contact, and that is primarily a mixture of coercion and plundering. In any case, the deglobalization helps us view every society in plain stand-alone phrases.

Allow us to now flip to the mannequin of human conduct offered in The Odyssey, once more noting that I see the important thing assumptions as people pursue quests, most dwell in poverty with a excessive threat of dying or imprisonment, and people hunt down intoxication.

Quests and the poverty of the fabric world

Essentially the most easy quest within the story is that of Telemachus, the son of Odysseus. Superficially, the travels of Telemachus to Pylos and Sparta are a quest to find details about his father, however arguably he additionally needs to mature and change into robust sufficient to repel the suitors from his family.

The key quest surrounding all the story, and of The Iliad as effectively, is the hunt of the Achaeans to get well Helen for Sparta and Menelaus, and as that story progresses, the need for revenge and glory. By the point we attain The Odyssey, it’s apparent that these struggles haven’t paid off by way of materials self-interest or bodily safety. Lots of the fighters are useless or condemned to lengthy durations of wandering, unable to achieve house in any easy approach.

It’s a extra advanced query how we must always take into consideration Odysseus himself, however for a begin I reject the frequent portrait of Odysseus because the grasp supervisor and manipulator par excellence. It’s true that he succeeds in returning house and exacting revenge on the suitors, however think about the prices alongside the way in which. He faces dying quite a few instances, and it takes him twenty years to return. Worse but, he loses most of his males alongside the way in which. The Ciconians, the Cyclopes, Scylla, and the Lastrygonians all kill a few of Odysseus’ males, with the Lastrygonians destroying eleven of his twelve ships with all their crew [10: 112-132]. That hardly looks as if managerial excellence, and in these narratives, Odysseus is not less than partially at fault for the outcomes, if solely as a result of he didn’t beat a extra fast hurry again house. Simply think about the take of Eurylochus on the Cyclopes episode: “Keep in mind what the Cyclops did? Our associates went to his house with this rash lord of ours [Odysseus]. Due to his dangerous decisions, all of them died.” [10: 437-439]. It’s laborious to argue with that, and Odysseus himself realizes he made a giant mistake [9: 227-228].

As a substitute, I consider Odysseus as looking for information and selection by a quest, even on the attainable expense of sensible penalties. His preliminary participation within the Trojan Struggle will be regarded as a quest for victory and glory, and his later time spent wandering round to the totally different locales of The Odyssey morphs right into a quest of a unique variety, specifically information and self-knowledge. Whereas there are many passages the place Odysseus expresses a powerful need to easily return house as quickly as attainable, a broader have a look at the story belies “return” as a easy account of his foremost motive. Odysseus, for all his discuss desirous to get house, typically appears fairly content material to linger, to compete in Olympic video games, to make like to Circe, and basically to discover the variety and unusual wonders of the worlds surrounding him. As soon as he’s away from the moorings of both house or having to guide his males in fight, effectively… the ensuing adventures appear fairly attention-grabbing. Certainly, that’s a part of what has made The Odyssey such a compelling story. The precise wishes of Odysseus appear ambiguous, a bit paying homage to a attainable St. Augustine paraphrase: “let me return house, simply not but.” It’s maybe Tennyson, in his poem “Ulysses”, who understands this facet of Odysseus greatest.

Odysseus is all the time trying to broaden his experiences. When Odysseus is on Aeolus, he doesn’t appear a lot to thoughts being trapped. He goes to mattress with the attractive Circe, albeit beneath the situation that she swears an oath that she is going to now not make plans to harm him [10:336-348]. At one level within the guide, Odysseus even means that the lads stick with Circe, “consuming and ingesting,” with “meals sufficient to final without end” [10: 423-428; the men rebel against this suggestion]. Odysseus simply doesn’t look like a loyal man who needs to get house to his house and spouse, however slightly he’s a wanderer and curiosity-seeker. It’s noteworthy that in terms of the Sirens, Odysseus is certainly eager to listen to the music and be taught its nature, so slightly than stuffing his ears with wax—the therapy for his males—he leaves his ears open and ties himself to the mast.

Odysseus in reality by no means makes it again to Ithaca by his personal volition. In Guide 13 he’s speaking with the Phaeacians when he merely vanishes, and with none specific intermediate journey, wakes up in Ithaca. There may be an implication that this was the work of the goddess Pallas Athena [13; 160-193]. So, for all his speak, within the closing evaluation Odysseus was not the lively agent of his return. And when Odysseus is leaving Circe, that is perhaps a perfect time for him to return house or not less than attempt to. However no, Homer reviews to his males that Circe instructed him to go to the “home of Hades and Persephone” [10: 562-567]

In Guide 13 we’re reminded that Odysseus will not be precisely bursting with need to see his spouse. Pallas Athena tells Odysseus that an extraordinary man would instantly rush house to see his spouse and kids, after the lengthy journey he undertook. She tells Odysseus that he didn’t even ask about them at first, and he was suspicious, feeling the necessity to first take a look at his spouse [13: 332-337]. On a number of extra events Odysseus particulars his restlessness and his lack of consideration to house and in addition Penelope.

The account of Odysseus given by Odysseus-in-disguise, after his return to Ithaca, raises additional doubts concerning the motives of Odysseus. Since Odysseus is speaking in disguise, that is only a fictional account, designed to mislead, or is it? Odysseus narrates his personal story, and he means that he intentionally sought a visit to Egypt, “with some pirates” [17: 420-446] to collect treasure, and he notes that alongside the way in which he and his males killed many individuals, till they had been upended by Zeus. Earlier, Odysseus-in-disguise had informed a comparable story to Eumaeus the swineherd, when he talked about that he had been safely at house together with his youngsters and spouse and possessions after the Trojan Struggle, however that, “Some impulse made me wish to sail to Egypt, with 9 ships and a godlike crew.” [14: 244-245] Once more, we most likely are usually not presupposed to take that narrative actually, and Odysseus-in-disguise is attempting to present an account of his actions whereas hiding his identification from Eumaeus. There may be but a 3rd time when Odysseus describes his personal motives, and that’s when Odysseus-in-disguise is narrating his story, and his story of encountering Odysseus, to Penelope on Ithaca. In the case of the encounter of Odysseus with the Phaeacians, Odysseus-in-disguise gives this account: “They honored him as if he had been a god himself, and gave him ample items, and tried to ship him house safely. He would have been right here way back, however he determined he ought to journey extra and collect better wealth. No man on earth is aware of higher methods to make a revenue.” [19: 280-286] The purpose right here is to not settle for all these tales as true accounts of the motives of Odysseus, however slightly to see Homer as elevating extra doubts about these motives. Do observe that when Odysseus lastly does return house, the very first thing he tells Penelope is that he may have to go away house once more, to make sacrifices to Poseidon [23: 248-280].

Lastly, examine Odysseus and Menelaus. Menelaus narrates how he was misplaced at sea for eight years, touring by Cyprus, Phoenicia, Egypt, Ethiopia, Sidon and Araby, and Libya, looking for to build up wealth. He notes that somebody entered his kingdom and killed his brother, who was betrayed by his scheming spouse [4: 82-92]. After numerous sorrows and tales are exchanged, Menelaus winds again to how he returned house [4: 349 and onwards]. At first the gods prevented his exit, simply as was the case with Odysseus, once more a deliberate parallel. However Menelaus works very laborious to make the right sacrifices to the gods, and to be taught what these sacrifices must be. After appreciable effort and machinations, and after Menelaus had “quenched the anger of the gods,” “The gods finally gave me honest wind, and despatched me shortly house.” [4: 583-586]. The distinction with Odysseus couldn’t be extra marked, the implication being that Odysseus in the end selected to dally outdoors his polity for so long as he did. The King who needed to return comes again to order, whereas Odysseus ceded management of his family.

Within the consolidated story, throughout the 2 Homerian epics, Nestor, Diomedes, Idomeneus, Agamemnon, and Menelaus all eschewed the long-term wandering path of Odysseus. As an example, when Telemachus visits Pylos, Nestor is at house together with his spouse and apparently securely answerable for his polity. Odysseus continues to be off wandering and unable to search out his approach house.

So how ought to we think about Odysseus? Possibly he’s a variety-seeker, a love and sex-seeker, a wealth-seeker, a fighter, a glory-seeker, a grasp manipulator, and in addition somebody who at instances needs to return house and search vengeance, restoring Ithaca to its correct place. When he presents himself as merely wishing to return house, it’s laborious to inform if he’s deceiving solely others or additionally deceiving himself. In any case, the character of his quest is a posh one, and he acts as if he’s stressed, and values discovery above homecoming, not less than for a lot of the decisions he makes.

If there may be any financial mannequin for the consumption of Odysseus (however not the opposite characters extra usually), it’s one among excessive intertemporal substitution mixed with low behavior formation, or extra prosaically, an excessive curiosity of quickly intense sampling. Meaning a number of one specific factor now (together with intoxication, mentioned beneath), after which in a while a substantial amount of one thing else fairly totally different. These different items can embrace warfare, household life, and journey. The life as an entire is diversified and numerous, however a lot of the particular person moments are fairly specialised. Amongst its different insights, The Odyssey is a case research of what such a life could be like, how daunting it could be, how damaging it may very well be, and the way few people could be well-suited for such an existence.

The economics of intoxication

Financial historians disagree concerning the actual residing requirements throughout each Homer’s time and the sooner time he wrote about, however per capita incomes couldn’t have been very excessive. Most technological revolutions had but to occur, and alternatives for materials accumulation had been correspondingly restricted, even for comparatively rich individuals. But intoxicating substances, and of all kinds, had been generally current. Wine is the obvious instance, however there are sufficient references to medication in The Odyssey that intoxication will be seen as one of many main themes.

One of the necessary financial selections an individual might make was whether or not to change into intoxicated, and which medium to decide on for the intoxication. For these above subsistence and beneath kingship, there might not have been so many different consumption selections which so influenced happiness, whether or not positively or negatively. Intoxication might have been the consumption resolution primary for a good portion of society.

I’m reminded of the one poor society I do know greatest, a Mexican village known as San Agustin Oapan, the place I as soon as did fieldwork. It appeared to me, and this was corroborated by a resident anthropologist, that the speed of male alcoholism there was about fifty %. Though the resident inhabitants was solely about 1500, not a day glided by whenever you didn’t see a drunk individual handed out on the street. Alcoholism and intoxication are frequent themes in different poor communities too, and a number of wealthier ones. We don’t have direct proof concerning the fee and diploma of intoxication in Homer’s time, however you possibly can take The Odyssey as oblique proof that intoxication probably was a big phenomenon.

Our information of intoxicating substances in Homer’s time is partial, however there was wine, poppy-related substances, intoxicating vegetation, and wine typically was infused with additional intoxicating substances—the compound pharmacy so to talk (Rinella 2010). Moreover, the wine of that point might have been rather more potent than the fashionable variations we purchase within the grocery store. When Helen pours drugged wine on the night pageant with Telemachus and Nestor, we’re informed it can take “all ache and rage away.” [4:221] The wine is blended with “highly effective magic medication,” from the fertile fields of Egypt [4: 228-230].

If you happen to doubt the potential worth of intoxication, think about the options as offered by the voyages of Odysseus. He confronts quite a few possibilities to have a bewitched, drugged, or drunk life, largely beneath pretty nice circumstances (Calypso, Circe, the Sirens, and arguably the selection he faces to stay in Scheria). He might take pleasure in these conditions for a while, however ultimately, he opts for the lengthy and harmful journey again house, the place he then faces a harmful confrontation with suitors. Odysseus’s journey is commonly described as one among temptation, however it’s much less generally emphasised that the majority of all he’s confronted with the temptation of varied intoxications (Rinelli 2010, pp.74-76).

Odysseus is the one character who can overcome or not less than keep away from falling into these temptations, and it’s placing how Circe describes him: “I’m amazed that you would drink my potion and but not be bewitched. No different man has drunk it and withstood the magic appeal. However you’re totally different. Your thoughts will not be enchanted. You should be Odysseus, the person who can adapt to something.” [10: 326-331] That is in line with the above description of Odysseus as a person who’s addicted to alter and the number of exploration, an intoxication better than what any specific drug can supply him, as a result of these medication would certainly convey his journeys to a closing finish. It’s not apparent that every one of Odysseus’s males would make the identical alternative, and infrequently he’s the one organizing the escape or deciding that his crew should not enable itself to be lured by the music of the sirens right into a blissful indifference to worldly fates.

The final word encounter with intoxication is in fact the expertise with the Sirens, “who bewitch all passersby,” and “will seduce him with piercing songs.” The songs are so compelling that males will find yourself as useless, rotting flesh, as they benefit from the songs on the expense of all different ends [12: 38-50]. There is no such thing as a protection towards their lure, aside from to be certain to the mast and to have one’s ears plugged with wax, in order that the songs merely are usually not heard. In that case “just a bit intoxication” will not be an choice, and the music of the Sirens should be abjured altogether. The one who listens to the music, nonetheless, is Odysseus, who doesn’t stuff his ears with wax, although he’s certain to the mast [12: 192-200].

The Cyclops is an instance of a creature unable to withstand the lure of intoxication, and to his eventual detriment. Odysseus is ready to escape, partly, as a result of he manages to get the Cyclops drunk, and the tip result’s that the Cyclops has a pointy burning stick thrust into his remaining eye. Odysseus’s males face the lure of the sirens, and their music, and we by no means fairly be taught simply how horrible or nice a destiny that’s going to be. Odysseus turns it down, as he is aware of it’s without end and feels a better must carry on transferring.

In essence, the intoxication theme is studying Homer by Aldous Huxley, specifically Huxley’s Courageous New World. In Huxley’s imagined dystopia, individuals drug themselves to really feel higher, when their fundamental materials wants have already got been met, so what else is there to do? Which may sound like the alternative of Homer’s world, however the emphasis of economics on marginal selections signifies these obvious opposites could also be fairly shut in any case. Each are situations of “intoxicate as a result of you possibly can’t do any higher on the margin,” admittedly at very totally different absolute ranges of consumption and luxury. At very low and really excessive ranges of consumption, if marginal work effort doesn’t yield a lot, the intoxication resolution will be central to financial reasoning.

In my subsequent piece, I’ll flip from this kind of financial modeling of the story of The Odyssey and to the number of polities explored within the epic. From these descriptions, we will seek for extra much more classes for political financial system in the present day.

References

Ahrensdorf, Peter J. Homer on the Gods & Human Advantage: Creating the Foundations of Classical Civilization. Cambridge: Cambridge College Press, 2014.

Alvis, John. Divine Function and Heroic Response in Homer and Virgil: The Political Plan of Zeus. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 1995.

Aronen, Jaakko. “Family tree as a Type of Mythic Discourse. The Case of the Phaeacians.” 2002, 89-110.

Bresson, Alain. The Making of the Historical Greek Economic system: Establishments, Markets, and Development within the Metropolis-States.

Cowen, Tyler. “Is a Novel a Mannequin?” In The Road Porter and the Thinker: Conversations on Analytical Egalitarianism, edited by Sandra Peart and David M. Levy. Ann Arbor: College of Michigan Press, 2008, 319-337.

Dobbs, Darrell. “Reckless Rationalism and Heroic Reverence in Homer’s Odyssey.” American Political Science Assessment, June 1987, 81, 2, 491-508.

Dodds, E.R. The Greeks and the Irrational. Berkeley: College of California Press, 1971.

Dougherty, Carol. The Raft of Odysseus: The Ethnographic Creativeness of Homer’s Odyssey. Oxford: Oxford College Press, 2001.

Germain, Gabriel. “The Sirens and the Temptation of Information.” In Homer: A Assortment of Important Essays, edited by George Steiner and Robert Fagles. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Corridor, 1962, 91-97.

Kearns, Emily. “The Gods within the Homeric Epics.” In The Cambridge Companion to Homer, edited by Robert Fowler. Cambridge: Cambridge College Press, 2004, 59-73.

Levy, David. The Financial Concepts of Peculiar Individuals: From Preferences to Commerce. London: Routledge, 2011.

Louden, Bruce. “An Prolonged Narrative Sample within the Odyssey.” Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Research, 1993.

Osborne, Robin. “Homer’s Society.” In The Cambridge Companion to Homer, edited by Robert Fowler. Cambridge: Cambridge College Press, 2004, 206-219.

Raaflaub, Kurt A. “Poets, lawgivers, and the beginnings of political reflection in Archaic Greece.” In The Cambridge Historical past of Greek and Roman Political Thought, edited by Christopher Rowe and Malcolm Schofield. Cambridge: Cambridge College Press, 2000, pp.23-59.

Redfield, James M. “The Financial Man.” In Oxford Readings in Classical Research: Homer’s Odyssey, edited by Lillian E. Doherty. Oxford: Oxford College Press, pp.265-287.

Rinella, Michael A. Pharmakon: Plato, Drug Tradition, and Identification in Historical Athens. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2010.

Rose, Gilbert P. “The Unfriendly Phaeacians.” Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Society, 1969, 100, 387-406.

Schmiel, Robert. “Telemachus in Sparta.” Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Affiliation.” 1972, 103, 463-472.

Scully, Stephen. Homer and the Sacred Metropolis. Ithaca, New York: Cornell College Press, 1990.

Seaford, Richard. Cash and the Early Greek Thoughts: Homer, Philosophy, Tragedy. Cambridge: Cambridge College Press, 2004.

Segal, Charles. Singers, Heroes, and Gods in The Odyssey. Ithaca, New York: Cornell College Press, 1994.

Whittaker, Helène. “The Standing of Arete within the Phaeacian Episode of The Odyssey.” Symbolae Osloenses, 1999, 74, 140-150.

Footnotes

[1] Accessible on the On-line Library of Liberty: The Iliad and the Odyssey by Homer, translated by Thomas Hobbes.

Accessible for buy: The Odyssey, by Homer, translated by Robert Fagles at Amazon.com.

[2] After all, this isn’t the primary try to view Homer by a rational alternative lens. Dobbs (1987) considers the Odyssey as a critique of political rationalism. Seaford (1987) considers each The Iliad and The Odyssey as narratives of a breakdown of “redistributive reciprocity,” in each instances resulting in battle, and Segal (1994) considers themes of reciprocal present trade in The Odyssey. Redfield (2009) considers the “financial ethic” in Homer. Levy (2011) considers Homer by the lens of historical past of financial thought. Extra usually, Cowen (2008) considers how we’d learn novels and different works of fiction as implicit fashions about characters and their interplay.

[3] On the traditional Greek financial system, together with Mycenaean instances, see Bresson (2016).

[4] On the precise notion of “polis” in Homer, see Scully (1990) and in addition Raaflaub (2000) has some attention-grabbing remarks.

[5] Strikingly, Homer’s personal time was one among rising cross-cultural contact and “globalization,” as mentioned by Dougherty (2001), but in addition one among political fragmentation Bresson (2016, pp.101-102). On the sooner deglobalization of Mycenaean society, beginning round 1200 BC and increasing for maybe 4 centuries, see Osborne (2004).

[6] See Ahrensdorf (2014, pp.206-209) for an extra improvement of this theme, together with the query of how a lot Odysseus blamed the lads themselves for his or her disastrous destiny. To make certain, there may be loads of rational calculation in The Odyssey, most of all from Odysseus. As an example, in guide 7, when Odysseus is visiting the Phaeacians, over the succession of a mere few pages we’re informed he spoke “with cautious calculation” [7: 206], or he answered “Planning his phrases with cautious talent…” [7: 240], or he replied to the King “With cautious tact” [7: 302]. Nonetheless procedural rationality, when mixed with uncommon preferences, is not going to all the time rebound to the social good.

[7] On this theme, see additionally Alvis (1995, chapter two).

[8] For this level on the Sirens, see Germain (1962, p.92).

[9] You don’t must imagine any a kind of accounts because the “actual story” of Odysseus or the true account of his motives. Nonetheless the broader implication is that there are quite a few tales of the wandering of Odysseus, not all of them have him as a heroic sufferer, and we additionally shouldn’t unconditionally privilege the actual account served up within the Odyssey both. In the case of the motives of Odysseus, Odysseus-in-disguise shouldn’t be discounted solely.

[10] See Ahrensdorf (2014, pp.216-223).

[11] For a dialogue of some associated sorts of preferences, see Elster (1979, 1982). For a basic therapy of “the irrational” in Greek thought, see Dodds (1971).